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Phonology of Chinese

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 							Oxford University Press
 The Phonology of Standard Chinese
 
 CONTENTS
 Notes on
Transcription xi
 Features, Abbreviations, and Symbols xiii
 Prefaces xv
 1. INTRODUCTION 1
 1.1.
Chinese, its speakers, and its dialects 1
 1.2. History 2
 1.3. Standard Chinese 4
 1.3.1. Standard
Spoken Chinese 4
 1.3.2. Alphabetical writing and Pinyin 5
 1.3.3. Vernacular writing 6
 1.4.
Phonological literature on Standard Chinese 6
 1.5. Goals of this book 8
 2. THE SOUND INVENTORY 9
 2.1.
What is a sound? 9
 2.2. Phonemics 10
 2.2.1. The minimal pair 10
 2.2.2. Complementary distribution
11
 2.2.3. Phonetic similarity 12
 2.2.4. Over-analysis 12
 2.2.5. Under-analysis 13
 2.2.6.
Phonemic economy 14
 2.3. Using syllable structure in phonemic analysis 15
 2.4. Features and the
representation of sounds 17
 2.4.1. Phonological features 17
 2.4.2. Complex sounds and the No-Contour
Principle 19
 2.4.3. Length and diphthongs 20
 2.4.4. Underspecifi cation 21
 2.5. Glides 22
 2.6.
Consonants 23
 2.7. Consonant–glide combinations 25
 2.8. Palatals as Consonant–glide
combinations 31
 2.10. Vowels 35
 2.10.1. High vowels 36
 2.10.2. The mid vowel 37
 2.10.3. The low
vowel 38
 2.10.4. The retrofl ex vowel 40
 2.10.5. Diphthongs 40
 2.10.6. Vowel length 40
 2.11. How
many sounds are there in Standard Chinese? 41
 2.12. Feature charts for Standard Chinese sounds 45
 3.
COMBINATIONS AND VARIATION 48
 3.1. Introduction 48
 3.2. Phonetics and phonology: What is relevant? 49

3.3. The rule-based approach 50
 3.4. The constraint-based approach 52
 3.5. The data 54
 3.5.1.
Transcriptions 54
 3.5.2. Rhyming groups 56
 3.5.3. Missing forms 58
 3.6. Rhyme-Harmony, Merge, and
G-Spreading 60
 3.7. Allophonic variations 64
 3.7.1. G-Spreading 64
 3.7.2. Surface variation in vowels
65
 3.8. Transcription of surface Standard Chinese sounds 66
 3.8.1. Required surface variations 67

3.8.2. Optional surface variations 68
 3.9. Tone and vowel height 69
 3.10. Labial onsets 69
 3.11.
Summary 70
 4. THE SYLLABLE 71
 4.1. Syllable boundaries 71
 4.2. The onset: obligatory or optional?
72
 4.3. The analysis of consonant–glide 79
 4.4. Structure of stressed syllables 81
 4.5.
Structure of unstressed syllables 83
 4.6. Language games 85
 4.6.1. Na-ma 86
 4.6.2. Mai-ka 87

4.6.3. Mo-pa 88
 4.6.4. Summary 90
 4.7. Final vs. non-fi nal positions 90
 4.8. Casual speech and
vowel-less syllables 91
 4.9. Other views on the Chinese syllable 92
 4.10. Homophone density, frequency, and
syllable loss 94
 4.11. Summary 96
 5. WORDS AND COMPOUNDS 97
 5.1. Introduction 97
 5.2. Previous
criteria for wordhood 99
 5.2.1. The Lexical Integrity Hypothesis 99
 5.2.2. Conjunction Reduction 99

5.2.3. Freedom of Parts 101
 5.2.4. Semantic Composition 102
 5.2.5. Syllable count 103
 5.2.6. Insertion
104
 5.2.7. Exocentric structure 108
 5.2.8. Adverbial Modifi cation 109
 5.2.9. XP Substitution 110
 5.2.10. Productivity 111
 5.2.11. Intuition 114
 5.2.12. Summary 114
 5.3. The present analysis 115
 5.3.1. Tests to be rejected 115
 5.3.2. Tests to be adopted with limitations 116
 5.3.3. Tests to be
adopted 117
 5.3.4. Summary 118
 5.4. Compound internal conjunction 119
 5.5. [M de N] inside [M N]
120
 5.6. Locatives 121
 5.7. de-omission 122
 5.8. Pseudo-compounds and pseudo-words 122
 5.9. [A
N] and Foot Shelter 125
 5.10. [Pronoun N] 127
 5.11. Summary 128
 6. STRESS 129
 6.1. Judgement on
stress 129
 6.2. Stress and syllabic weight 132
 6.3. Stress and feet 133
 6.4. Pitch accent, downstep,
upstep, and levels of stress 134
 6.5. Foot Binarity and the empty beat 135
 6.6. Foot structure and the Dual
Trochee 137
 6.7. Word stress 140
 6.8. The Information-Stress Principle 143
 6.9. Phrasal stress 146
 6.9.1. Phrasal stress in English 146
 6.9.2. Phrasal stress in Chinese 148
 6.10. Stress effects in Chinese
152
 6.11. Other views of stress and foot in Chinese 155
 6.12. Summary 157
 7. THE WORD-LENGTH PROBLEM
158
 7.1. Introduction 158
 7.2. Abundance of disyllabic words in Chinese 159
 7.3. The dual vocabulary
161
 7.4. Ambiguity avoidance? 165
 7.5. Other views on the use of disyllabic words 169
 7.5.1. The
speech-tempo approach 169
 7.5.2. The grammatical approach 170
 7.5.3. The rhythm approach 172
 7.5.4.
The morphologization approach 172
 7.5.5. The stress-length approach 173
 7.6. Stress, foot, and word-length
choices 174
 7.7. The minimal word and name usage 177
 7.8. Non-metrical factors 179
 7.9. Monosyllables
in different word categories 182
 7.10. Fixed-length words 185
 7.11. [A N] compounds 186
 7.12. Summary
189
 8. THE WORD-ORDER PROBLEM 191
 8.1. Introduction 191
 8.2. [X Y N] compounds 192
 8.3. [V-O N]
compounds 195
 8.3.1. The data 195
 8.3.2. The analysis 200
 8.4. [V-O N] compounds in English 203

8.5. Movement or not? 204
 8.6. [V N] compounds 205
 8.7. Compounds with internal VO phrases 208
 8.8.
Summary 211
 9. THE [Éš] SUFFIX 212
 9.1. Introduction 212
 9.2. Basic facts 212
 9.3. Previous
analyses 214
 9.3.1. Y. Lin (1989) 214
 9.3.2. Duanmu (1990) 216
 9.3.3. J. Wang (1993) 216
 9.4.
The present analysis 218
 9.5. Variations 221
 9.6. Interaction between tone and the [Éš] suffi x 223

9.7. The [Éš] suffi x in other Mandarin dialects 223
 9.8. Summary 224
 10. TONE: BASIC PROPERTIES 225

10.1. Tone and tonal transcription 225
 10.2. Phonetic correlates of tone 228
 10.3. Tonal features: Pitch and
Register 229
 10.3.1. Pitch and Register 229
 10.3.2. Levels of contrast 230
 10.4. Contour tones and the
tone-bearing unit 233
 10.5. Is tone a prosodic feature? 235
 10.6. Tones in Standard Chinese 236

10.6.1. Tones on full syllables 236
 10.6.2. Variation of T3 238
 10.6.3. Variation of T2 239
 10.6.4.
Tone on weak syllables 241
 10.6.5. T3S and weak syllables 242
 10.6.6. Tone and vowel height 243

10.6.7. Tone and length 244
 10.6.8. Some special syllables 245
 10.6.9. Reduplicated patterns 247
 10.7.
Tone and stress: the Tone-Stress Principle 248
 10.8. Tone and intonation 250
 10.9. Tone in songs 252

10.10. Tonal frequencies in Standard Chinese 253
 10.11. Summary 253
 11. TONE 3 SANDHI (T3S) 254
 11.1.
Introduction 254
 11.2. The data 255
 11.3. The tree-only analysis 257
 11.4. The stress-insensitive foot
analysis 260
 11.5. The present analysis 266
 11.6. Summary 273
 12. RHYTHM IN POETRY 275
 12.1.
What is rhythm in poetry? 275
 12.2. Is rhythm determined by the syntactic tree? 277
 12.3. Stress pattern,
template, and their mapping 279
 12.4. Is it easier to create poems in Chinese? 284
 12.5. Template typology
286
 12.6. Approaches to template typology 292
 12.7. The prosodic hierarchy 295
 12.8. Summary 297

13. CONNECTED SPEECH AND OTHER DIALECTS 298
 13.1. Introduction 298
 13.2. Consonant reduction 298
 13.3.
De-stressing and rhyme reduction 299
 13.4. Vowel devoicing and voiceless syllables 300
 13.5. Syllable merger
302
 13.6. Phonological processes in other dialects 304
 13.6.1. Tone sandhi in Wu dialects 304
 13.6.2.
Tone sandhi in Min dialects 305
 13.6.3. Tone sandhi in Tianjin 306
 13.6.4. Rhyme changes 306
 13.6.5.
Language games 307
 13.7. Taiwanese accented Standard Chinese 307
 13.7.1. Lexicon 307
 13.7.2. Stress
308
 13.7.3. Tone 308
 13.7.4. Segmental differences 310
 13.7.5. Consonant reduction and syllable merger
311
 13.8. Summary 312
 14. THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS 313
 Appendix: Full Syllables in Standard Chinese
319
 References 331
 Index 351 						

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